How do we know that an enzyme is denatured in an experiment?
No oxygen gas is produced, indicating that the enzyme has lost its functional shape and can no longer catalyze reactions. Ex. In a hydrogen peroxide decomposition experiment with catalase, no foam formation would occur if the enzyme is denatured.
•Enzymes
What is the shape of enzymes?
Enzymes have a specific three-dimensional folded shape, which is crucial for their function. This shape allows the enzyme's active site to bind to a specific substrate, similar to a lock and key.
•Enzymes
What is the chemical nature of enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins composed of amino acids. They act as biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Ex. Amylase helps break down starch into maltose.
•Skeletal System
Name two factors that continuous bone production relies on.
1. Exercise: Weight-bearing activities stimulate bone growth and density. 2. Calcium: Essential for bone strength, obtained from dairy, leafy greens, and fortified foods.
•Skeletal System
Where is the yellow bone marrow found?
Yellow bone marrow is located in the medullary cavity of long bones, such as the femur and humerus. It primarily stores fat, which serves as an energy reserve.
•Skeletal System
Why is yellow bone marrow yellow?
Yellow bone marrow appears yellow due to its high fat content. It stores adipose tissue, which can be converted into energy when needed by the body.
•Skeletal System
What is the function of yellow bone marrow?
The primary function of yellow bone marrow is to store fat. However, in cases of severe blood loss, it can convert into red bone marrow to help produce blood cells.
•Skeletal System
What connects muscles to bones?
Tendons connect muscles to bones. They are strong, fibrous connective tissues that allow muscles to pull on bones to produce movement. Ex. The Achilles tendon connects the calf muscle to the heel bone.
•Skeletal System
What connects bones to bones?
Ligaments connect bones to other bones at joints, providing stability and limiting excessive movement. Ex. The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) stabilizes the knee joint.
•Skeletal System
Where is red bone marrow located?
Red bone marrow is found in the spongy bone of certain bones, such as the pelvis, ribs, and vertebrae. It is responsible for producing red and white blood cells and platelets.
•Skeletal System
Where are red blood cells made?
Red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow. This process, called hematopoiesis, ensures the continuous replacement of RBCs, which transport oxygen throughout the body.
•Skeletal System
What are the vertebral discs made from, and what is their function?
Vertebral discs are made from cartilage and function as shock absorbers between vertebrae. They help cushion impacts and allow flexibility in the spine.
•Skeletal System
What are the cells that make up bones?
Bones are made up of osteoblasts, which are specialized cells responsible for bone formation. They produce the bone matrix and help in the process of mineralization.
•Skeletal System
What are the cells that break down bones?
Osteoclasts are cells responsible for breaking down bone tissue. This process, known as bone resorption, is essential for bone remodeling and calcium regulation.
•Skeletal System
What are the five regions of the vertebral column?
1. Cervical - Neck region, supports the skull. 2. Thoracic - Upper back, connects to ribs. 3. Lumbar - Lower back, bears most weight. 4. Sacrum - Fused bones forming the back of the pelvis. 5. Coccyx - Tailbone, provides support for sitting.
•Skeletal System
What two sections is the skeleton divided into?
The skeleton is divided into: 1. Axial skeleton: Includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, providing structural support. 2. Appendicular skeleton: Includes limbs, shoulders, and pelvis, allowing movement.
•Skeletal System
What are the four functions of the skeleton?
1. Protection: Shields vital organs. Ex. The skull protects the brain. 2. Movement: Muscles attach to bones and pull on them to generate movement. 3. Support: Maintains body posture and structure. 4. Blood component production: Bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets for circulation.
•Skeletal System
How does movement occur?
Movement occurs when the nervous system sends signals to muscles, causing them to contract. Muscles pull on tendons, which in turn move the bones, creating movement at joints. Ex. Bending the arm involves the contraction of the biceps and relaxation of the triceps.
•Human Nutrition
Explain and name features of the lacteal.
The lacteal is a structure in the villus of the small intestine that absorbs fatty acids and glycerol. It transports them into the lymphatic system before they enter the bloodstream. Ex. It prevents fats from directly entering the circulatory system, avoiding blockages.
•Human Nutrition
Name the three types of heterotrophs?
1. Herbivores: Eat only plants. Ex. Sheep and cows. 2. Carnivores: Eat only meat. Ex. Dogs and cats. 3. Omnivores: Eat both meat and plants. Ex. Humans and bears.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is a heterotroph?
An organism that cannot make its own food and must obtain nutrients from other sources.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the functions of symbiotic bacteria?
1. Produce vitamins B & K. 2. Compete with harmful bacteria, preventing infections.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about the symbiotic bacteria in the colon?
Symbiotic bacteria live in the large intestine and feed on undigested waste. They aid digestion and vitamin production while outcompeting harmful bacteria.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is symbiosis?
A relationship where two organisms of different species live in close contact, with at least one benefiting. Ex. Bacteria in the human gut producing vitamins.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of the colon?
1. Reabsorbs water from waste. 2. Houses symbiotic bacteria that produce vitamins. 3. Pushes undigested waste out of the body via egestion.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about the caecum and appendix?
These are vestigial organs in humans, meaning they no longer serve a vital function.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What does the large intestine consist of?
The large intestine includes the caecum, appendix, colon, and rectum.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What artery carries oxygen-rich blood to the liver, and what carries deoxygenated blood away?
The hepatic artery delivers oxygen-rich blood to the liver, while the hepatic vein removes deoxygenated blood from the liver.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is one portal system we studied and what does it do?
The hepatic portal vein connects the small intestine to the liver, allowing nutrients to move directly to the liver for processing or storage.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What vein connects the small intestine to the liver?
The hepatic portal vein connects the small intestine to the liver, transporting nutrients for metabolism or storage.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is a portal system?
A blood pathway that begins and ends in capillaries. Ex. The hepatic portal system between the intestine and liver.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of the villus (villi)?
The villi absorb nutrients via diffusion. The lacteal absorbs fatty acids and glycerol, transporting them to the lymphatic system. Capillaries absorb glucose and amino acids, sending them to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the five adaptations of the Ileum for nutrient absorption?
1. Lined with villi and microvilli for increased surface area. 2. Rich blood supply. 3. Long in length for maximum absorption. 4. Thin villi walls for easy diffusion. 5. Villi contain a lacteal to absorb fats.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of the Ileum?
The Ileum absorbs nutrients like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol through diffusion into the bloodstream.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about the Ileum.
The Ileum follows the duodenum and continues digestion. Peristalsis pushes food along, ensuring maximum nutrient absorption.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about the duodenum.
The duodenum connects the stomach to the Ileum and plays a key role in digestion. It receives digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver, aiding in fat emulsification and nutrient breakdown.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the small intestine and what is it composed of?
A muscular tube (5-6m long) that aids digestion and absorption. It consists of: 1. Duodenum - digestion. 2. Ileum - nutrient absorption.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about the physical digestion that occurs in the stomach.
The stomach's muscular walls churn food, mixing it with gastric juices containing HCl, pepsinogen, and mucus. This mixture, now called chyme, moves into the duodenum for further digestion.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What do sphincter muscles do and what are the two found in the stomach?
Sphincter muscles regulate food movement and prevent acid leakage. 1. Cardiac sphincter: Prevents acid reflux into the esophagus. 2. Pyloric sphincter: Controls the release of chyme into the duodenum.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is pepsin and what does it break down?
Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides. It is activated in the acidic environment of the stomach.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of pepsinogen in the stomach?
Pepsinogen is an inactive enzyme secreted by the stomach lining. It is activated by HCl to form pepsin, which digests proteins.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of mucus in digestion?
Mucus protects the stomach lining from self-digestion by forming a protective barrier against acidic gastric juices.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the function of HCl in the stomach?
1. Kills harmful microorganisms. 2. Breaks down tough food fibers. 3. Activates pepsinogen into pepsin for protein digestion.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the chemical and physical digestion processes in the stomach?
Physical digestion: Churning of food. Chemical digestion: Breakdown of food using HCl, pepsinogen, and mucus.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the benefits of fiber?
Fiber, found in plant cell walls, aids digestion by absorbing water and stimulating peristalsis. Ex. Wholemeal bread, cereals, fruits, and vegetables help prevent constipation.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
How is the movement of the bolus aided?
The bolus is moved by saliva and mucus lining the esophagus, making swallowing easier.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is peristalsis and where does it occur?
Peristalsis is the wave-like contraction of muscles that moves food through the digestive tract. It occurs in the esophagus, intestines, and fallopian tubes.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the esophagus and how does it transport food?
The esophagus is a muscular tube that carries food to the stomach using peristalsis.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What closes over the trachea and why?
The epiglottis closes over the trachea during swallowing to prevent food from entering the windpipe.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is food formed into and where does it go?
Food is formed into a bolus and pushed into the pharynx before entering the esophagus.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the ideal pH of the mouth?
The ideal pH of the mouth is 7, which is optimal for the enzyme amylase.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
Tell me about saliva.
Saliva, secreted by salivary glands, moistens and dissolves food, aiding digestion and swallowing.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
How is chemical digestion carried out in the mouth?
Amylase in saliva breaks down starch into maltose, initiating chemical digestion.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is the human dental formula for an adult?
The adult human dental formula is 2-1-2-3, representing incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the two types of digestion in the mouth and the functions of different teeth?
Physical digestion: Teeth and tongue break food into smaller pieces. Chemical digestion: Saliva contains amylase. Tooth functions: Incisors - cutting, Canines - tearing, Premolars - grinding, Molars - crushing.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What are the four stages of digestion?
1. Ingestion - Food intake. 2. Digestion - Breakdown of food. 3. Absorption - Nutrients enter the bloodstream. 4. Egestion - Removal of undigested waste.
Premium Card
•Human Nutrition
What is nutrition?
The process by which an organism obtains and utilizes food for energy and growth.
Premium Card
•Homeostasis
What is the importance of Homeostasis?
1. Allows normal metabolic activity. 2. Maintains suitable pH and temperature for enzyme function.
Premium Card
•Homeostasis
What is homeostasis?
The maintenance of a constant internal environment, ensuring stable conditions for cellular function.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What are the effects of smoking, diet, and exercise on the circulatory system?
Smoking: Nicotine increases heart rate. Diet: Fatty foods cause cholesterol buildup, leading to strokes. Exercise: Strengthens and enlarges the heart.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Tell me about blood pressure?
Blood pressure is the force blood exerts against vessel walls. High blood pressure can indicate blocked arteries due to cholesterol buildup. It is measured using a sphygmomanometer. Average blood pressure: 120/80.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Tell me about the cardiac cycle?
1. Blood enters the heart through the vena cava and pulmonary vein (diastole). 2. The SA node signals atria to contract, pushing blood into ventricles (systole). 3. The AV node signals ventricles to contract, pushing blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery (systole).
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Tell me about the AV node?
The AV node, located in the septum, receives an impulse and signals the ventricles to contract.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Tell me about the pacemaker?
The SA node, located in the right atrium, acts as the heart's pacemaker by generating electrical impulses that trigger atrial contraction.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
How is the heartbeat controlled?
The pacemaker (SA node) controls the heartbeat by sending electrical signals. The heart alternates between contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole).
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the hepatic portal system and what does it do?
The hepatic portal vein connects the small intestine to the liver, allowing nutrient-rich blood to be processed before entering circulation.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is a portal system?
A blood pathway that begins and ends in capillaries. Ex. The hepatic portal system.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Explain blood flow through the heart?
1. Vena cava carries deoxygenated blood to the right atrium. 2. Blood moves to the right ventricle and is pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. 3. Oxygenated blood returns through the pulmonary vein to the left atrium. 4. Blood moves to the left ventricle and is pumped to the body via the aorta.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the importance of the two circulatory circuits?
1. Keeps oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood separate. 2. Maintains high enough blood pressure to reach all body parts. Ex. LORD (Left Oxygenated, Right Deoxygenated).
What are the four major blood vessels connected to the heart?
1. Vena cava: Carries deoxygenated blood to the right atrium. 2. Pulmonary artery: Carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. 3. Pulmonary vein: Carries oxygenated blood to the left atrium. 4. Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood to the body.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Which two arteries have valves?
The pulmonary artery and the aorta.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Name the heart valves and their functions.
1. Tricuspid valve: Prevents backflow into the right atrium. 2. Bicuspid valve: Prevents backflow into the left atrium. 3. Semi-lunar valves: Prevent backflow into the heart, located at the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What are the four chambers of the heart?
1. Left atrium. 2. Left ventricle. 3. Right atrium. 4. Right ventricle.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the pericardium?
The pericardium is a double membrane surrounding the heart, with fluid that prevents friction during heartbeats.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the heart made of?
The heart is made of cardiac muscle, which is tough and does not fatigue.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
Where is the heart located?
The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs.
Premium Card
•Photosynthesis
What are the dark stage products of photosynthesis?
The dark stage produces glucose, using ATP and NADPH from the light stage.
Premium Card
•Photosynthesis
What happens in the dark stage of photosynthesis?
CO₂ is reduced to form glucose in a reduction reaction.
Premium Card
•Photosynthesis
Explain the main events of the dark stage.
1. NADPH releases protons and electrons. 2. ATP provides energy. 3. CO₂ combines with protons and electrons to form glucose. 4. ADP and NADP+ return to the light stage to be reused.
Premium Card
•Photosynthesis
What are the end products of the light stage?
1. ATP – Provides energy for the dark stage. 2. NADPH – Provides protons and electrons. 3. Oxygen – Released into the atmosphere or used in respiration.
Premium Card
•Photosynthesis
What are the two functions of NADPH?
1. Supplies electrons. 2. Supplies protons for the dark stage of photosynthesis.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What is the function of alveoli?
Alveoli facilitate gas exchange. Oxygen enters the blood, while carbon dioxide is removed. Adaptations: 1. Large surface area. 2. Thin walls. 3. Rich blood supply. 4. Numerous.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What are bronchi and bronchioles?
Bronchi divide into bronchioles, which carry air into the lungs. Ex. In asthma, bronchioles narrow, making breathing difficult. Inhalers help by dilating them.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What is the trachea and its function?
The trachea (windpipe) carries air to the lungs. It is supported by cartilage rings and contains mucus and cilia to trap dust and bacteria.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What is the effect of exercise on breathing rate?
Exercise increases respiration, raising CO₂ levels. The brain detects this and triggers deeper, faster breathing to expel excess CO₂.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What happens during inhalation?
1. The diaphragm contracts and flattens. 2. Intercostal muscles contract, moving ribs up and out. 3. Lung volume increases, decreasing pressure, drawing air in.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What happens during exhalation?
1. The diaphragm relaxes and curves upward. 2. Intercostal muscles relax, lowering ribs. 3. Lung volume decreases, increasing pressure, pushing air out.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What controls breathing rate?
The medulla oblongata detects CO₂ levels in the blood and adjusts breathing rate to maintain homeostasis.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
How does gas exchange occur?
Gas exchange occurs by diffusion. Oxygen enters red blood cells, and carbon dioxide is transported in plasma to be exhaled.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What is the function of the epiglottis?
The epiglottis closes over the trachea when swallowing to prevent food from entering the windpipe.
Premium Card
•Human Breathing
What does the nose do?
Air is inhaled through the nose or mouth. Breathing through the nose has advantages: 1. Hairs and mucus filter out dust and pathogens. 2. Air is moistened and warmed for easier diffusion into lung capillaries.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
1. Collects tissue fluid and returns it to blood vessels. 2. Defends against infections by producing lymphocytes and filtering pathogens. 3. Absorbs and transports fats from the digestive system via lacteals.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What are lymph nodes?
Lymph nodes are small structures along lymph vessels that fight infection in two ways: 1. They filter bacteria. 2. White blood cells mature in lymph nodes, then engulf pathogens or produce antibodies.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What do lymph vessels combine to form?
Lymph vessels merge to form two main ducts: 1. The thoracic duct. 2. The right lymphatic duct. These return lymph to the bloodstream.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What is a lymph vessel?
A lymph vessel transports lymph and ensures one-way flow using valves.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What does the lacteal do?
The lacteal absorbs fatty acids and glycerol from the small intestine and transports them into the lymphatic system.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What is lymph?
Lymph is a yellow fluid composed of fats, proteins, and white blood cells.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
How is tissue fluid returned to the blood?
90% of tissue fluid returns naturally to capillaries. The remaining 10% enters lymph vessels and is eventually returned to the bloodstream as lymph.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What is tissue fluid?
Tissue fluid is fluid that leaks from arterioles into surrounding tissues. It is similar to plasma but lacks red blood cells and platelets due to their size.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What is the function of the lymphatic system?
It collects excess fluid from tissues, filters it for pathogens, and returns it to the blood.
Premium Card
•The Lymphatic System
What is the lymphatic system?
A secondary circulatory system with a one-way network of vessels that collect and return excess fluid to the blood.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the human transport method that does not contain red blood cells?
Lymph.
Premium Card
•Blood
Why do red blood cells only live for 120 days?
Red blood cells lack a nucleus and organelles, preventing self-repair when damaged.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What are capillaries?
Capillaries have thin walls that allow nutrients and gases to pass through. They connect arteries and veins in this sequence: Artery → Arteriole → Capillary → Venule → Vein.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the function of valves?
Valves prevent the backflow of blood in veins and the heart.
1. No valves. 2. Narrow lumen. 3. Thick walls to withstand high pressure.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the function of arteries?
Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What are the advantages of a closed circulatory system?
1. Faster blood flow, allowing quick oxygen and nutrient delivery. 2. Blood flow can be redirected to different organs based on activity, e.g., increased flow to leg muscles when running.
Premium Card
•The Circulatory System
What is the difference between open and closed circulation?
1. Open: Blood is pumped into open spaces and bathes cells directly. Ex. Insects. 2. Closed: Blood remains in vessels at all times. Ex. Humans.
Premium Card
•Blood
What is the Rhesus factor?
A protein found on red blood cells. Rh+ means the protein is present, Rh- means it is absent. Matching Rh factor is crucial in blood transfusions.
Premium Card
•Blood
What are the four blood groups?
The four blood groups are A, B, AB, and O. Blood transfusions must be matched correctly to avoid complications.
Premium Card
•Blood
What are platelets and their function?
Platelets are cell fragments produced in the bone marrow. They help clot blood, preventing excessive bleeding and infections. Ex. Haemophiliacs lack the ability to form blood clots.
Premium Card
•Blood
What are the two types of white blood cells (WBCs)?
1. Lymphocytes: Found in the lymphatic system, produce antibodies. 2. Monocytes (Macrophages): Found throughout the body, engulf and destroy pathogens.
Premium Card
•Blood
What is the function of white blood cells?
White blood cells fight infections by engulfing pathogens or producing antibodies.
Premium Card
•Blood
What are the adaptations of red blood cells?
1. Biconcave shape increases surface area for oxygen transport. 2. Contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen. 3. Flexible to fit through narrow capillaries.
Premium Card
•Blood
What is the function of red blood cells?
Red blood cells transport oxygen throughout the body.
Premium Card
•Blood
Do red blood cells contain a nucleus?
No, they lose their nucleus during development to maximize space for hemoglobin.
Premium Card
•Blood
Where are red blood cells produced?
Red blood cells are produced in red bone marrow.
Premium Card
•Blood
What is the function of plasma?
Plasma transports blood cells, platelets, hormones, and heat around the body. It is mostly water and an excellent solvent.
Premium Card
•Blood
What color is plasma?
Plasma is yellow due to dissolved proteins and nutrients.
Premium Card
•Blood
What are the four components of blood?
1. Plasma. 2. Red blood cells. 3. White blood cells. 4. Platelets.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
What is osmosis and how is it used in food preservation?
Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from high to low concentration. Ex. Salting meat removes water from bacteria, killing them and preventing spoilage.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
How does osmosis affect plant cells?
1. In a dilute solution: Water enters, creating turgor pressure and keeping the plant firm. 2. In a concentrated solution: Water leaves, causing plasmolysis, making the cell shrink.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
How does osmosis affect animal cells?
1. In a dilute solution: Water enters, causing swelling or bursting. 2. In a concentrated solution: Water leaves, making the cell shrivel. 3. In an equal solution: Water moves in and out equally, maintaining cell size.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from high to low water concentration. It is a passive process.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high to low concentration without requiring energy. Ex. Oxygen diffusing into blood in the lungs.
Premium Card
•Diffusion and Osmosis
What are permeable, impermeable, and selectively permeable membranes?
1. Permeable: Allows all substances to pass through. 2. Impermeable: Blocks all substances. 3. Selectively permeable: Allows some substances through while blocking others.
Premium Card
•Cell Structure
What is the function of the mitochondria?
The mitochondria generate energy for the cell through respiration. Cells requiring more energy have more mitochondria.
Premium Card
•Cell Structure
What is the function of ribosomes?
Ribosomes synthesize proteins using genetic instructions from the nucleus.
Premium Card
•Cell Structure
What is the function of the nucleus?
The nucleus controls cell activities and contains DNA, which carries genetic information.
Premium Card
•Cell Structure
What is DNA and where is it found?
DNA contains genetic instructions for the cell. It is found in chromosomes inside the nucleus.
Premium Card
•Cell Structure
What is the function of the cell membrane?
The cell membrane retains the cell’s contents, controls what enters and leaves, and consists of phospholipids and proteins.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are systems?
A system consists of organs working together to perform one or more functions. Ex. The circulatory system and digestive system.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are the two different types of organs?
1. Plant organ: Leaf (contains dermal, vascular, and ground tissue). 2. Animal organ: Heart (contains cardiac and connective tissue).
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are organs?
An organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a specific function.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are the benefits of skin grafts?
1. No need to remove skin from other parts of the body. 2. New skin is identical to the patient’s, reducing the risk of rejection.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are skin grafts?
The growth of new skin for patients with severe burns, using tissue culture.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are the benefits of micro-propagation?
1. Produces large quantities of plants quickly. 2. Cost-effective.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What is plant breeding?
Plant breeding is a type of tissue culture that involves growing large numbers of plant cells or tissues in controlled conditions.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What conditions are necessary for successful tissue culture?
The growth of cells outside an organism in a sterile artificial environment.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What is tissue culture?
The growth of cells in a sterile nutrient medium outside an organism.
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are the different types of animal tissue?
1. Muscle tissue: Moves the skeleton (contains mitochondria for energy). 2. Nervous tissue: Carries impulses (contains Schwann cells for myelin production).
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What are the different types of plant tissue?
1. Xylem: Transports water and minerals (hollow tubes). 2. Ground tissue: Stores food and aids photosynthesis (contains chloroplasts).
Premium Card
•Cell Diversity
What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of cells with the same function.
Premium Card
•Food
What are the two types of metabolism?
1. Anabolism: Builds large molecules from smaller ones (requires energy). Ex. Photosynthesis. 2. Catabolism: Breaks down large molecules into smaller ones (releases energy). Ex. Respiration.
Premium Card
•Food
What is metabolism?
The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in an organism.
Premium Card
•Food
What are the functions of water in the body?
1. Serves as a medium for reactions. 2. Transports heat. 3. Transports nutrients and minerals.
Premium Card
•Food
What minerals do animals require?
1. Calcium: Forms teeth and bones (found in milk, cheese). 2. Iron: Forms hemoglobin for oxygen transport (found in meat, green vegetables).
Premium Card
•Food
What minerals do plants require?
1. Calcium: Binds cell walls together (absorbed from soil). 2. Magnesium: Essential for chlorophyll production (absorbed from soil).
Premium Card
•Food
What are minerals?
Minerals are essential nutrients needed in small amounts for bodily functions.
Premium Card
•Food
What are the two types of vitamins?
1. Water-soluble: Vitamin C (found in citrus fruits, deficiency causes scurvy). 2. Fat-soluble: Vitamin D (found in milk, eggs, deficiency causes rickets).
Premium Card
•Food
What are vitamins?
Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for health, cell production, and tissue growth.
Premium Card
•Food
What are some sources of protein?
1. Lean meat. 2. Fish. 3. Eggs.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the structural function of proteins?
Proteins provide structural support. Ex. Keratin in hair and nails.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the metabolic function of proteins?
Proteins are involved in enzyme activity and hormone production.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the structure of proteins?
Proteins are made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Chains of peptides form polypeptides, which fold into proteins.
Premium Card
•Food
What are proteins?
Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some also contain sulfur.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the structure of lipids?
1. Triglycerides: Made of glycerol and three fatty acids (found in fatty foods). 2. Phospholipids: Made of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate head (found in cell membranes).
Premium Card
•Food
What is the structural function of lipids?
Lipids are a key component of cell membranes.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the metabolic function of lipids?
Lipids provide heat insulation and act as an energy store.
Premium Card
•Food
What are lipids?
Lipids include oils, fats, and steroids. Oils are liquid at room temperature, while fats are solid.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the carbohydrate ratio?
Carbohydrates have a hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 2:1. General formula: Cx(H2O)y.
Premium Card
•Food
What is the structural role of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates provide structure. Ex. Cellulose in plant cell walls.
Premium Card
•Food
What are the three types of carbohydrates?
1. Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (glucose, fructose). 2. Disaccharides: Two sugar units (maltose, lactose). 3. Polysaccharides: Many sugar units (starch, cellulose, glycogen).
Premium Card
•Food
What do carbohydrates consist of?
Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Premium Card
•Food
What are biomolecules?
Biomolecules are chemicals produced by living organisms. The four major types are: 1. Carbohydrates. 2. Lipids. 3. Proteins. 4. Vitamins.
Premium Card
•Food
What are trace elements?
Trace elements are minerals needed in tiny amounts. Ex. Iron, copper, zinc.
Premium Card
•Food
What are common elements found in salts?
Sodium, chlorine, calcium.
Premium Card
•Food
What are common elements found in all foods?
Carbon, oxygen, sulfur, hydrogen, nitrogen.
Premium Card
•Food
What are the functions of food?
1. Provides energy. 2. Supplies materials for metabolism. 3. Supports growth and repair.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
Is an enzyme reaction anabolic or catabolic?
Enzyme reactions are catabolic because enzymes break down large molecules into smaller ones.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are the uses of immobilized enzymes?
1. Used in food production. Ex. Glucose isomerase converts glucose to fructose in soft drinks. 2. Used in medicine. Ex. Enzymes aid in drug production.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are the advantages of immobilized enzymes?
1. Can be reused, reducing waste and costs. 2. The product is easier to purify since enzymes remain fixed.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are two chemical methods of enzyme immobilization?
1. Bonded to a support. 2. Bonded to each other.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are two physical methods of enzyme immobilization?
1. Adsorption. 2. Enclosed by a membrane.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are immobilized enzymes?
Enzymes that are fixed to a support or to each other to improve efficiency and reusability.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is a bioreactor?
A vessel in which living cells or enzymes are used to produce a product.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is bioprocessing?
The use of enzyme-controlled reactions to produce substances. Ex. Medicines, yogurt, beer.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is a denatured enzyme?
A denatured enzyme has lost its shape and can no longer function.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What happens when an enzyme is outside its optimum pH or temperature?
The enzyme starts to denature, reducing activity and eventually stopping function.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
Explain the Induced Fit Model.
1. The substrate binds to the enzyme's active site. 2. The enzyme changes shape to fit better. 3. The reaction occurs. 4. The product is released, and the enzyme returns to its original shape.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is an enzyme-substrate complex?
The temporary molecule formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is the active site?
The part of the enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is a product?
The substance formed after the enzyme acts on the substrate.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is a substrate?
The reactant that an enzyme acts on.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are enzymes specific to?
Enzymes work best at a specific temperature and pH.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are enzymes made of?
All enzymes are proteins and are produced by ribosomes.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What is the shape of enzymes?
Enzymes have a 3D globular shape.
Premium Card
•Enzymes
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being used up.