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•Plate Tectonics
What are the layers of Earth's structure?
1. Inner Core: A solid sphere of iron and nickel under immense pressure, reaching 5,500°C. 2. Outer Core: A molten layer of metal generating Earth's magnetic field. 3. Mantle: A thick, semi-molten layer making up 75% of Earth's volume. 4. Crust: The thin, outermost layer, varying in thickness from 5 km (oceanic) to 70 km (continental).
•Plate Tectonics
What is the asthenosphere?
A semi-molten layer of the mantle that allows tectonic plates to float and move. It is responsible for convection currents that drive plate tectonics.
•Plate Tectonics
What is the lithosphere?
The rigid, outer shell of the Earth, consisting of the crust and the uppermost mantle. It is broken into tectonic plates that move due to mantle convection.
•Plate Tectonics
What is the Moho?
The Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) is the boundary between the Earth's crust and mantle. It marks a change in rock density and seismic wave speed.
•Plate Tectonics
What are the types of crust?
1. Continental Crust: Thick (30-70 km), less dense, made of granite (SIAL - silica and aluminium). 2. Oceanic Crust: Thin (5-10 km), denser, made of basalt (SIMA - silica and magnesium).
•Plate Tectonics
What is the theory of plate tectonics?
Earth’s crust is divided into rigid plates that move due to convection currents in the mantle. These movements create earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges.
•Plate Tectonics
What are the seven major tectonic plates?
1. North American 2. South American 3. Pacific 4. African 5. Eurasian 6. Indo-Australian 7. Antarctic. These plates move over the asthenosphere, reshaping Earth's surface.
•Plate Tectonics
What is continental drift?
Proposed by Alfred Wegener, it states that continents were once joined as Pangaea and have since moved apart due to plate movement. Evidence includes fossil records and matching rock formations.
•Plate Tectonics
What causes convection currents?
Heat from the Earth's core warms the mantle, causing hot magma to rise and cooler magma to sink. These circular currents drive plate movement, shaping Earth's surface.
•Plate Tectonics
What is a mid-ocean ridge?
An underwater mountain chain formed at divergent plate boundaries, where magma rises and solidifies as plates separate. Ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North American and Eurasian plates.
•Plate Tectonics
What is seafloor spreading?
New oceanic crust forms as magma rises at mid-ocean ridges, pushing older crust outward. This process widens oceans and moves continents apart. Ex. The Atlantic Ocean expanding.
•Plate Tectonics
What is subduction?
A denser oceanic plate sinks beneath a lighter continental plate, melting into the mantle. This creates trenches, earthquakes, and volcanic arcs. Ex. The Nazca Plate subducting under South America.
•Plate Tectonics
What is slab pull?
A subducting plate sinks into the mantle, dragging the rest of the plate with it due to gravity. This is one of the strongest forces driving plate movement.
•Plate Tectonics
What happens at a divergent plate boundary?
Plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and form new crust. This creates mid-ocean ridges, volcanic islands (Iceland), and rift valleys (East African Rift).
•Plate Tectonics
What happens at a convergent plate boundary?
1. Oceanic-Oceanic: One plate subducts, forming trenches and volcanic islands (Ex. Japan). 2. Oceanic-Continental: Denser oceanic crust sinks, forming volcanic arcs and fold mountains (Ex. Andes). 3. Continental-Continental: No subduction, intense folding forms large mountains (Ex. Himalayas).
•Plate Tectonics
What happens at a transform plate boundary?
Plates slide past each other, creating friction and earthquakes. There is no volcanic activity. Ex. San Andreas Fault (Pacific and North American plates).
•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is a fault line?
A fracture in Earth's crust where rock movement occurs due to plate stress. Ex. San Andreas Fault in California.
•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is the focus of an earthquake?
The underground point where an earthquake begins. It is where rock stress is suddenly released, sending seismic waves outward.
•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is the epicenter of an earthquake?
The point on Earth's surface directly above the focus. This area experiences the most damage during an earthquake.
•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What are seismic waves?
Vibrations that travel through Earth from an earthquake’s focus. There are P-waves (fastest), S-waves (slower), and surface waves (most destructive).
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is the Richter scale?
A logarithmic scale (1-10) that measures earthquake magnitude based on seismic wave size. Each increase of 1 represents a tenfold increase in energy released.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is a seismograph?
An instrument that records ground movements caused by seismic waves. It detects vibrations to measure earthquake intensity.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is the Mercalli scale?
A scale (1-12) that measures earthquake damage based on human observations and structural destruction, rather than seismic energy.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)?
A modern scale that measures total earthquake energy, using both seismic readings and rock displacement. It is more accurate than the Richter scale for large quakes.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is a tsunami?
A large, fast-moving wave caused by an underwater earthquake, volcanic eruption, or landslide. Ex. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is liquefaction?
A process where loose, water-saturated soil turns into liquid-like mud due to seismic shaking, causing buildings to collapse.
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•Earthquakes & Volcanoes
What is an early warning system?
A system that detects seismic activity and sends alerts before shaking occurs. Ex. Japan’s earthquake warning system.
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•Weather & Climate
What is climate?
The long-term average of temperature, precipitation, and wind in an area. Ex. Ireland has a cool temperate oceanic climate.
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•Regions - Ireland
What is a geomorphological region?
An area with distinct landforms and geological features shaped by physical processes. Ex. The Burren, Co. Clare (limestone pavement).
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•Regions - Ireland
What is an administrative region?
A politically defined area governed by local authorities. Ex. County councils in Ireland, or French departments.
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•Culture & Identity
What is a cultural region?
An area where people share language, religion, or traditions. Ex. The Gaeltacht in Ireland (Irish-speaking region).
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•Culture & Identity
What is culture?
A set of beliefs, customs, traditions, and language that define a group. It influences lifestyle, architecture, and identity.
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•Regions - European
What is a socio-economic region?
1. Core Region: Highly developed, with a strong economy and infrastructure. Ex. Greater Dublin Area (GDA). 2. Peripheral Region: Poorly developed, with fewer services and jobs. Ex. West of Ireland.
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•Human - Urban Geography
What is a hinterland?
A region surrounding a city that depends on it for jobs, services, and transport. Ex. The Dublin commuter belt.
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•Human - Urban Geography
What is a nodal point?
A transport hub where multiple routes meet, boosting trade and communication. Ex. Dublin Airport.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are fold mountains?
Fold mountains form when rock layers are compressed at convergent plate boundaries, causing them to buckle and fold upwards. They are usually found along destructive plate margins where continental and oceanic plates collide. Ex. Himalayas (formed by the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates) and the Andes (formed by the Nazca and South American plates).
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•Plate Tectonics
What is an anticline?
An anticline is an upward fold in rock layers formed by compression at convergent boundaries. The oldest rock layers are found at the center of the fold. Over time, erosion can expose the core, creating ridges and valleys. Ex. The Ridge and Valley Province in the Appalachian Mountains.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a syncline?
A syncline is a downward fold in rock layers where the youngest rock is found at the center. These folds form at convergent plate boundaries due to compression. Over time, rivers often carve through synclines, creating valleys. Ex. The Jura Mountains in Switzerland.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are the three types of folding?
1. **Symmetrical Folding**: Rock layers bend evenly on both sides due to equal compression. 2. **Asymmetrical Folding**: One side of the fold is steeper than the other due to uneven pressure. 3. **Overturned Folding**: Extreme compression forces the fold to collapse on itself, creating steep or vertical rock layers. Ex. The Alps.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are the three main fold mountain periods?
1. **Caledonian (450 mya)**: Formed when the American and Eurasian plates collided, now heavily eroded. Ex. Dublin-Wicklow Mountains. 2. **Armorican (250 mya)**: Less eroded, formed by the collision of African and Eurasian plates. Ex. Comeragh Mountains. 3. **Alpine (60 mya)**: The youngest and highest, formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. Ex. Himalayas, Andes.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are fold mountains?
Fold mountains form when rock layers are compressed at convergent plate boundaries, causing them to buckle and fold upwards. They are usually found along destructive plate margins where continental and oceanic plates collide. Ex. Himalayas (formed by the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates) and the Andes (formed by the Nazca and South American plates).
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•Plate Tectonics
What is an anticline?
An anticline is an upward fold in rock layers formed by compression at convergent boundaries. The oldest rock layers are found at the center of the fold. Over time, erosion can expose the core, creating ridges and valleys. Ex. The Ridge and Valley Province in the Appalachian Mountains.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a syncline?
A syncline is a downward fold in rock layers where the youngest rock is found at the center. These folds form at convergent plate boundaries due to compression. Over time, rivers often carve through synclines, creating valleys. Ex. The Jura Mountains in Switzerland.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are the three types of folding?
1. Symmetrical Folding: Rock layers bend evenly on both sides due to equal compression. 2. Asymmetrical Folding: One side of the fold is steeper than the other due to uneven pressure. 3. Overturned Folding: Extreme compression forces the fold to collapse on itself, creating steep or vertical rock layers. Ex. The Alps.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are the three main fold mountain periods?
1. Caledonian (450 mya): Formed when the American and Eurasian plates collided, now heavily eroded. Ex. Dublin-Wicklow Mountains. 2. Armorican (250 mya): Less eroded, formed by the collision of African and Eurasian plates. Ex. Comeragh Mountains. 3. Alpine (60 mya): The youngest and highest, formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. Ex. Himalayas, Andes.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a fault?
A fault is a crack in Earth's crust where movement occurs due to plate tectonics. They form when stress builds up in rock layers, causing fractures. Faults can be associated with earthquakes, mountain formation, and rift valleys. Ex. The San Andreas Fault in California.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is faulting?
Faulting is the process by which rocks break under stress due to tension, compression, or shearing. It occurs in areas of crustal weakness, often along plate boundaries. This process can create features like fault-block mountains, valleys, and earthquakes.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a normal fault?
A normal fault occurs when rock is pulled apart due to tensional forces, causing the hanging wall to move downward. This occurs at divergent plate boundaries where plates separate. Ex. East African Rift Valley.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a reverse fault?
A reverse fault forms when compressional forces push rock layers together, causing the hanging wall to move upward. This occurs at convergent plate boundaries where plates collide. Ex. Ox Mountains, Mayo.
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•Plate Tectonics
What is a transform fault?
A transform fault occurs when plates slide past each other, creating intense friction. This movement does not result in mountain formation but leads to earthquakes. Ex. San Andreas Fault in California, where the Pacific Plate moves northwest past the North American Plate.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are endogenic forces?
Endogenic forces originate within the Earth and shape the crust through tectonic activity. They include volcanism, earthquakes, and mountain building, driven by heat from the Earth's core. These forces create new landforms but can also cause destruction.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are exogenic forces?
Exogenic forces act on Earth's surface and include weathering, erosion, and deposition. They are caused by external factors such as wind, water, and ice, gradually breaking down and reshaping landforms over time. Ex. The erosion of the Burren in Co. Clare.
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•Weather & Climate
What type of weather is associated with anticyclones?
Anticyclones bring stable, dry weather due to descending high-pressure air. They result in clear skies, little wind, and warm temperatures in summer, but cold, frosty conditions in winter. Ex. High-pressure systems over Europe in summer.
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•Weather & Climate
What type of weather is associated with cold fronts?
Cold fronts bring heavy rainfall, strong winds, and temperature drops as cold air forces warm air upward, cooling and condensing moisture into clouds. This leads to thunderstorms or heavy showers, followed by clear, cool weather.
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•Isostasy and Eustasy
What is isostasy?
Isostasy is the vertical movement of Earth's crust due to the addition or removal of weight, such as ice sheets or sediments. This process can lead to land uplift or subsidence.
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•Rivers
What is river rejuvenation?
River rejuvenation occurs when a river’s base level is lowered, increasing its erosive power. Causes include isostatic uplift, eustatic sea level change, or tectonic activity.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is a peneplain?
A peneplain is a low-relief, nearly level land surface formed by long-term erosion, reducing the landscape close to base level.
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•Rivers
What is a knickpoint?
A knickpoint is a sudden change in a river’s gradient, often forming waterfalls or rapids. It indicates river rejuvenation due to base level change.
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•Rivers
What are paired terraces?
Paired terraces are flat, step-like landforms found along riverbanks at equal elevations on both sides, formed when a river cuts downward after base level change.
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•Rivers
What are incised meanders?
Incised meanders are deep, steep-sided meandering river valleys carved into bedrock due to river rejuvenation. Ex. River Colorado in the Grand Canyon.
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•Rivers
What are levees?
Levees are natural or artificial embankments along riverbanks that prevent flooding. Natural levees form from repeated deposition during floods.
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•Rivers
What is a floodplain?
A floodplain is a flat area beside a river formed by alluvial deposition during floods. It is highly fertile and often used for agriculture.
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•Rivers
What is the base level of a river?
The base level of a river is the lowest point it can erode to, often the river’s mouth at the sea or a lake.
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•Isostasy and Eustasy
What is a raised beach?
A raised beach is an ancient shoreline left above present sea level due to isostatic uplift, often with old wave-cut platforms and cliffs.
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•Isostasy and Eustasy
What is a raised cliff?
A raised cliff is a former sea cliff now above the coastline due to isostatic uplift. These cliffs are often vegetated and no longer eroded by waves.
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•Isostasy and Eustasy
What is a raised platform?
A raised platform is an old wave-cut platform uplifted above current sea level by isostatic recovery, often found along coasts with raised beaches.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are plutonic rocks?
Plutonic rocks are intrusive igneous rocks that form deep within Earth's crust from slowly cooling magma. Ex. Granite.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are volcanic rocks?
Volcanic rocks are extrusive igneous rocks formed when lava cools on Earth’s surface. Ex. Basalt from volcanic eruptions.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is the rock cycle?
The rock cycle is a continuous process where rocks are formed, altered, and recycled through igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic processes.
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•Plate Tectonics
What are endogenic forces?
Endogenic forces originate inside Earth and drive processes like plate tectonics, earthquakes, and volcanic activity, shaping the crust.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are exogenic forces?
Exogenic forces act on Earth’s surface, including weathering, erosion, and deposition, which modify landscapes over time.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies, either below (intrusive) or above (extrusive) Earth’s surface. Ex. Granite (intrusive) and basalt (extrusive).
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are sedimentary rocks?
Sedimentary rocks form from compressed and cemented sediments over time. Ex. Limestone, formed from marine organisms.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is lithification?
Lithification is the process where sediments become rock through compaction and cementation, forming sedimentary rock layers.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is strata?
Strata are horizontal rock layers formed over millions of years, separated by bedding planes, commonly found in sedimentary rocks.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is granite?
Granite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock that forms deep within Earth's crust from slowly cooled magma.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is basalt?
Basalt is a fine-grained extrusive igneous rock formed from rapidly cooled lava on Earth's surface. It is found in volcanic regions.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is limestone?
Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed from compressed marine fossils. It is common in karst landscapes like The Burren, Ireland.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What are metamorphic rocks?
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are changed by heat and pressure, altering their structure. Ex. Marble (from limestone) and schist (from shale).
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is a permeable rock?
A permeable rock allows water to pass through it due to its porous nature. Ex. Limestone, which allows water to flow through joints and bedding planes.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is an inorganic sedimentary rock?
Inorganic sedimentary rocks form from compacted mineral particles like sand, silt, or clay. Ex. Sandstone, formed from compressed sand grains.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is an organic sedimentary rock?
Organic sedimentary rocks form from the remains of plants and animals. Ex. Limestone, made from compressed marine fossils.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is thermal metamorphism?
Thermal metamorphism occurs when rocks are altered by heat from nearby magma, changing their mineral structure. Ex. Limestone to marble.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is regional metamorphism?
Regional metamorphism happens over large areas due to extreme heat and pressure, often during mountain formation. Ex. Schist and gneiss.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is quarrying?
Quarrying is the extraction of rock from Earth's surface for construction and industry. Ex. Limestone and granite quarrying in Ireland.
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•Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
What is marble?
Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone due to heat and pressure, often used in construction and sculpture.
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•Rivers
What are rivers?
Rivers are natural flowing water bodies that transport water from higher elevations to seas, lakes, or other rivers.
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•Rivers
What are the three stages of a river?
1. Upper Course: Steep gradient, vertical erosion, V-shaped valleys, waterfalls. 2. Middle Course: Lateral erosion, meanders, river beaches. 3. Lower Course: Deposition, floodplains, deltas.
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•Rivers
What is a river source?
A river source is the starting point of a river, often found in mountainous or highland areas.
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•Rivers
What is a river mouth?
A river mouth is where a river meets a larger body of water, such as a sea or lake, marking the end of its course.
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•Rivers
What is a tributary?
A tributary is a smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river, increasing its discharge.
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•Rivers
What is a confluence?
A confluence is the point where two rivers meet and merge, combining their flow.
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•Rivers
What factors influence river speed?
River speed depends on 1. Discharge (water volume), 2. Gradient (slope), 3. Channel shape (roughness affects resistance).
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•Rivers
What is a river channel?
A river channel is the path a river follows, bordered by banks and a bed, shaping its flow and erosion patterns.
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•Rivers
What is a waterfall and how does it form?
A waterfall is a vertical drop in a river's course, usually found in its youthful stage. It forms when a river meets resistant rock, with softer rock eroding faster due to hydraulic action and abrasion. Over time, a plunge pool develops, undercutting the hard rock, causing it to collapse and retreat upstream. This process is called headward erosion. Ex. Powerscourt Waterfall, Ireland; Niagara Falls, USA.
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•Rivers
What is a gorge?
A gorge is a steep-sided valley left behind when a waterfall retreats upstream due to continuous erosion. It forms through headward erosion as the waterfall cuts into the landscape over time. Ex. Grand Canyon, USA.
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•Rivers
What is a V-shaped valley and how does it form?
A V-shaped valley is a steep-sided river valley created by vertical erosion in a river’s youthful stage. It forms as a river cuts downward into its bed, with hydraulic action and abrasion deepening the valley. Weathering on the valley sides causes rockfall, making the valley steeper. Ex. River Moy, Co. Mayo.
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•Rivers
What is a levee and how does it form?
A levee is a natural embankment formed when a river floods and deposits sediment along its banks. The heaviest material settles first, creating raised ridges. Over time, repeated flooding builds up these ridges, reducing the risk of future floods. Ex. River Moy, Ireland; Mississippi River, USA.
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•Rivers
What is a floodplain?
A floodplain is a flat, fertile area beside a river formed by repeated flooding. During floods, fine alluvium is deposited, creating rich soil ideal for agriculture. Ex. The River Shannon floodplain.
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•Rivers
What is alluvium?
Alluvium is a mineral-rich sediment deposited by a river during floods. It consists of fine silt, sand, and clay, making floodplains highly fertile and suitable for farming.
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•Rivers
What is a meander and how does it form?
A meander is a bend in a river’s course, formed when water erodes the outer bank (river cliff) and deposits material on the inner bank (slip-off slope). Over time, erosion and deposition cause the bends to become more pronounced.
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•Rivers
What are interlocking spurs?
Interlocking spurs are ridges of land that a river weaves around in its youthful stage. They form in mountainous areas where the river lacks power to cut through the landscape, forcing it to wind around resistant rock. Ex. River Barrow, Ireland.
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•Rivers
What is a rapid?
A rapid is a section of a river with turbulent, fast-flowing water. It forms when alternating bands of hard and soft rock erode at different rates, creating an uneven riverbed. Ex. Rapids along the River Liffey.
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•Rivers
What is an oxbow lake and how does it form?
An oxbow lake is a U-shaped water body formed when a meander becomes cut off from the river. Erosion narrows the neck of the meander until it is breached during high flow. Deposition then seals off the old meander, forming an isolated lake. Ex. The Mississippi River oxbow lakes.
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•Rivers
What is a delta and how does it form?
A delta forms where a river meets a sea or lake, depositing sediment faster than waves can remove it. This creates landforms such as distributaries and floodplains. Ex. Nile Delta, Egypt.
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•Rivers
What is a distributary?
A distributary is a small river or stream that branches off from the main river in a delta. It helps spread sediment across the delta, forming new land.
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•Rivers
What is bankfull discharge?
Bankfull discharge is when a river channel is completely full, with no additional capacity to hold water. Any further increase leads to flooding.
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•Rivers
How have humans interacted with the River Rhine?
The River Rhine is a major transport route in Europe. Levees have been built to prevent flooding, protecting cities like Duisburg, Germany. However, this has also led to increased river speed and flooding risks downstream. Ex. Netherlands’ flood defences.
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•Isostasy and Eustasy
What are isostatic processes?
Isostatic processes involve changes in sea level due to the land rising or sinking. Uplift occurs when ice sheets melt, removing weight from the crust. Ex. Scotland is rising due to post-glacial rebound.
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•Rivers
What is river rejuvenation?
River rejuvenation occurs when a river gains renewed erosive power due to a drop in base level. This can happen due to isostatic uplift or sea level change, leading to features like knickpoints and river terraces.
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•Rivers
What is a knickpoint?
A knickpoint is a sudden change in a river’s gradient, often appearing as rapids or waterfalls. It marks a previous base level before river rejuvenation. Ex. River Barrow, Ireland.
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•Rivers
What are river terraces and how do they form?
River terraces are step-like features along a river valley, formed when a river cuts into its old floodplain due to rejuvenation. They mark former floodplain levels. Ex. River Barrow, Co. Kilkenny.
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•Economic - European Union
What is the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and how does it impact Ireland?
The CAP provides financial support to EU farmers, ensuring stable food production and rural development. In Ireland, CAP subsidies help maintain farm incomes and modernize agriculture, but also lead to overproduction and reliance on EU funding.
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•Economic - European Union
What is the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and how does it affect Ireland?
The CFP manages fish stocks in EU waters through quotas and conservation measures. While it prevents overfishing, Irish fishermen argue that quota restrictions benefit larger EU nations, limiting Ireland’s fishing industry.
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•Economic - European Union
What are the benefits of Ireland's EU membership?
EU membership provides Ireland with access to the Single Market, allowing free trade with other EU nations. It has also brought infrastructure funding, job creation, and improved living standards through EU investment in roads, education, and rural areas.
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•Economic - European Union
What is the Eurozone and how does it affect Ireland?
The Eurozone is the group of EU countries using the euro as their currency. Ireland benefits from price stability, lower interest rates, and ease of trade, but lost independent control over monetary policy.
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•Weather & Climate
What is an example of a climatic region?
A cool temperate oceanic climate is an example of a climatic region. Ex. Ireland experiences mild temperatures, moderate rainfall, and changeable weather due to its maritime location.
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•Regions - European
What are examples of geomorphological regions?
Geomorphological regions have distinct physical features shaped by natural processes. Ex. The Burren, Co. Clare (karst landscape) and the North European Plain (low-lying land).
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•Regions - European
What are examples of administrative regions?
Administrative regions are defined by political boundaries and governance. Ex. County Councils in Ireland and French Departments in France.
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•Culture & Identity
What are examples of cultural regions?
Cultural regions are defined by shared language, religion, or traditions. Ex. The Gaeltacht (Irish-speaking areas) and Northern Ireland (historically divided by religion).
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•Regions - Ireland
What are examples of socio-economic regions?
Socio-economic regions differ in economic development and population density. Ex. Core Region - Greater Dublin Area (high development, strong economy). Peripheral Region - West of Ireland (low development, weaker economy).
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•Human - Urban Geography
What are examples of nodal or city regions?
Nodal or city regions are urban centers that influence surrounding areas through transport, trade, and services. Ex. Dublin, Paris Basin, São Paulo.
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•Regions - Continental
What is a region?
A region is an area of land with unique characteristics that distinguish it from others. These characteristics can be physical (landforms), social (culture), or economic (development).
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•Regions - Continental
What is regionalism?
Regionalism is the concept of defining and analyzing regions based on their distinct characteristics, such as climate, culture, or economic activity.
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•Weather & Climate
What is climate?
Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a large area over a long period, typically 30-35 years. Ex. Ireland has a cool temperate oceanic climate.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the latitude of the cool temperate oceanic climate?
The cool temperate oceanic (CTO) climate is found between 40° and 60° north of the equator.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the latitude of Ireland?
Ireland is located between 51.5° and 55° north of the equator, placing it in the cool temperate oceanic climate zone.
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•Weather & Climate
What is another name for the cool temperate oceanic climate?
The cool temperate oceanic climate is also called a maritime climate because it is influenced by the North Atlantic Ocean.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the average summer temperature in Ireland?
Summers in Ireland are mild, with average temperatures between 15°C and 17°C due to the moderating effect of the ocean.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the average winter temperature in Ireland?
Winters in Ireland are mild, averaging around 6°C due to the warming influence of the North Atlantic Drift.
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•Weather & Climate
What is Ireland’s annual temperature range?
Ireland's temperature range is small, averaging about 11°C, due to the moderating effect of the ocean.
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•Weather & Climate
What are the sunniest months in Ireland?
May and June are the sunniest months in Ireland, with an average of 6 hours of sunshine per day at their peak.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the least sunny month in Ireland?
December has the least sunshine, with as little as 1 to 2 hours of sunshine per day due to short daylight hours and frequent cloud cover.
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•Weather & Climate
Why does the west of Ireland receive less sunshine than the southeast?
The west experiences more cloud cover due to Atlantic weather systems, while the southeast receives more sunshine as it is sheltered from prevailing westerly winds.
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•Weather & Climate
In which season does Ireland receive the most rainfall?
Winter is the wettest season in Ireland, with frequent Atlantic depressions bringing heavy rainfall.
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•Weather & Climate
How is rainfall distributed in Ireland?
Rainfall is unevenly distributed. The west receives up to 2,500 mm annually due to prevailing winds and mountains, while the east receives around 800 mm.
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•Weather & Climate
Why does the west of Ireland receive more rainfall than the east?
The west receives more rainfall due to upland relief. Moist air is forced to rise over mountains, cooling and condensing to form rain. The east is in a rain shadow.
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•Weather & Climate
What is the North Atlantic Drift?
The North Atlantic Drift is a warm ocean current flowing from the Gulf of Mexico towards Europe, moderating Ireland’s climate.
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•Weather & Climate
How does the North Atlantic Drift affect Ireland’s temperature?
The North Atlantic Drift raises Ireland’s average temperature by about 10°C and prevents ports from freezing in winter.
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•Weather & Climate
Why does Ireland have a small temperature range?
Ireland’s mild winters and cool summers result from the North Atlantic Drift, which moderates extreme temperature changes.
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•Weather & Climate
What are Ireland’s prevailing winds?
Ireland's prevailing winds are southwesterly winds, bringing moist air from the Atlantic Ocean.
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•Weather & Climate
How do Ireland’s prevailing winds moderate its climate?
Prevailing winds pick up moisture from the Atlantic, bringing frequent rainfall and preventing extreme temperature variations.
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•Weather & Climate
How do depressions impact Ireland’s weather?
Depressions bring periods of unsettled weather, with strong winds and heavy rain. This makes Ireland's weather unpredictable and changeable.
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•Regions - Ireland
What is a geomorphological region?
A geomorphological region is an area with distinct landforms shaped by geological processes. Ex. The Giant's Causeway, Co. Antrim, and The Burren, Co. Clare.
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•Regions - Continental
What is geomorphology?
Geomorphology is the study of landforms, how they form, and how they change over time due to natural processes such as erosion and deposition.
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•Human - Population
What are four influences on population?
1. War: Increases death rates and reduces birth rates. 2. Technology: Advancements in healthcare, agriculture, and infrastructure improve living conditions. 3. Healthcare: Better access to vaccines and sanitation lowers death rates. 4. Role of Women: In some countries, cultural norms and lack of education lead to higher birth rates.
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•Human - Population
What are the reasons for studying population pyramids?
Population pyramids help predict future needs. High birth rates indicate a need for schools, low workforce levels suggest migration policies, and an aging population increases healthcare demands.
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•Human - Population
What are four push and pull factors of migration?
Push factors: 1. Economic - Unemployment, poverty. 2. Social - Poor services. 3. Political - Conflict, instability. 4. Environmental - Natural disasters. Pull factors: 1. Economic - Job opportunities. 2. Social - Better healthcare, education. 3. Political - Stability. 4. Environmental - Fertile land, safety from hazards.
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•Human - Population
What are three impacts of migration on donor and host countries?
Donor: 1. Brain drain - Skilled workers leave. 2. Social decline - Fewer young people. 3. Lower birth rates. Host: 1. Economic boost - More workers. 2. Higher tax revenue. 3. Pressure on housing and services.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are three factors affecting globalization?
1. Transport: Improved infrastructure boosts trade and travel. 2. Trade: Free trade agreements increase economic interdependence. 3. Communications: Internet and media connect people worldwide.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are the impacts of globalization?
1. Food: Increased imports, risk of monoculture. 2. Environment: Higher CO₂ emissions due to trade and industry. 3. Culture: More multicultural societies, but risk of cultural loss.
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•Economic - Developing Economies
How are countries classified by economic development?
1. Developed: High incomes, strong infrastructure (Ex. Germany). 2. In Transition: Rapid industrialization, rising incomes (Ex. China). 3. Developing: Poverty, reliance on agriculture (Ex. Ethiopia).
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•Economic - Developing Economies
What are three causes of economic inequality?
1. Colonialism: Exploitation left lasting poverty. 2. Debt: Countries repay loans instead of investing in development. 3. Corruption: Leaders misuse aid and resources.
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•Economic - Developing Economies
What are the types of aid?
1. Emergency aid: Short-term relief after disasters. 2. Development aid: Long-term projects. 3. Tied aid: Comes with conditions. 4. Bilateral aid: Between two countries. 5. Multilateral aid: Given by multiple nations or organizations.
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•Economic - Developing Economies
What are the pros and cons of aid?
Pros: Improves healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Saves lives in crises. Cons: Risk of corruption, dependency, and political influence.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What is globalisation and what drives it?
Globalisation is the increased interconnectedness of economies, cultures, and trade worldwide. It is driven by advances in technology, improved transport, free trade agreements, and multinational corporations expanding their influence.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are the positive impacts of globalisation?
Globalisation leads to economic growth, job creation, and increased cultural exchange. Developing countries benefit from foreign investment, while consumers have access to a wider range of goods at lower prices.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are the negative effects of globalisation?
Globalisation increases environmental damage due to mass production and transport emissions. It also leads to job losses in developed nations as companies outsource to lower-wage economies, and it can erode local cultures.
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•Economic - Developing Economies
How does globalisation impact developing countries?
Developing nations benefit from increased trade, investment, and employment, but often face exploitation by multinational corporations, low wages, and environmental degradation due to weak regulations.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are multinational companies (MNCs) and why do they locate in Ireland?
MNCs are businesses that operate in multiple countries. Ireland attracts MNCs due to its low corporation tax (12.5%), English-speaking workforce, EU access, and strong technology sector. Ex. Google, Apple, and Pfizer have major bases in Ireland.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are the advantages of MNCs in Ireland?
MNCs create jobs, boost the economy, and bring new technology and skills. They contribute to tax revenue and improve Ireland’s reputation as a global business hub.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
What are the disadvantages of MNCs in Ireland?
MNCs can exploit low tax rates while repatriating profits to their home countries. They may also relocate to cheaper countries, leading to job losses. Their presence can also overshadow local businesses.
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•Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
How do MNCs contribute to globalisation?
MNCs drive globalisation by expanding into new markets, outsourcing production to lower-cost countries, and influencing global trade. They connect economies but can also lead to economic inequality and environmental issues.
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