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•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
Introduce the start of the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations
The Treaty talks began in controversy. Ireland wanted a republic and a united Ireland. Britain would only offer dominion status. De Valera refused to lead the delegation, stating he needed to stay in Ireland to ensure IRA compliance with the ceasefire and to avoid the delegation being pressured into an agreement. Critics said he stayed because he knew the republic would not be achieved. The delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins. They had little experience and unclear objectives.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
What role did the partition of Ulster and the republic versus dominion debate play in the Treaty negotiations?
Ulster was evenly split, and no side wanted to be ruled by the other. Lloyd George offered temporary reunification with an opt-out clause. If Northern Ireland opted out, a boundary commission would be set up. He said the commission would reduce NI to such a small size that it would have to rejoin the South. This was a lie. Ireland had declared a republic in 1916 and could not accept less. Britain only offered dominion status. De Valera proposed external association, but Britain rejected it.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
How did the Treaty get signed, and what was the response in Ireland?
Lloyd George presented a revised Treaty that offered dominion status and required an oath of allegiance to the British monarch. The Irish delegates asked to consult with Dublin. Lloyd George threatened war. Under pressure, the delegation signed. The Dáil was outraged that the Treaty was signed without approval. The vote to ratify was initially expected to go against it, but Cathal Brugha's personal attack on Michael Collins changed public sentiment and the Dáil approved the Treaty.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
What were the long-term consequences of the Anglo-Irish Treaty?
The Treaty caused a split in the revolutionary movement and led to the Irish Civil War. The process was filled with conflict over who led the delegation, how the signing occurred, and the unresolved disagreement between dominion status and a republic. Partition remained. The Treaty shaped Irish politics for decades. Collins defended it by saying it gave Ireland freedom to achieve full independence over time.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
Introduce the changes in Anglo-Irish relations from 1923 to 1949.
The period from 1923 to 1949 saw major shifts in Anglo-Irish relations. After the War of Independence and the Treaty, the pro-Treaty Cumann na nGaedheal government aimed to maintain the political status quo with Britain. However, Fianna Fáil, under de Valera, pursued a long-term diplomatic strategy to dismantle British influence and achieve full Irish independence. The period included key events such as the Boundary Commission, the Economic War, and the eventual declaration of the Republic.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
Explain the early developments in Anglo-Irish relations from 1924 to 1932, including the Boundary Commission and Statute of Westminster.
The Boundary Commission of 1924, intended to review the border between the Free State and Northern Ireland, backfired when one member leaked details suggesting minimal territorial changes. Cosgrave had the report suppressed, which worsened Anglo-Irish relations. In 1926, the Balfour Declaration at the Imperial Conference recognised Dominions as equal in status, leading to the Statute of Westminster in 1931. This statute allowed Dominions to repeal British laws, but CnG refused to act on it. Fianna Fáil campaigned on using it to increase independence and won the 1932 election.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
Outline Fianna Fáil’s constitutional and economic actions to reduce British influence between 1932 and 1938.
After Fianna Fáil took power, they passed the Removal of Oath Act and replaced the Governor General, undermining key Treaty terms. De Valera began the Economic War by withholding land annuities, leading Britain to impose 20% tariffs. Ireland retaliated with its own tariffs. In 1938, the Anglo-Irish Agreement ended the dispute. Britain returned the Treaty Ports, and Ireland made a one-time £10 million payment. These moves significantly weakened the Treaty’s hold on Irish policy.
•Pursuit of Sovereignty 1912–1949
Describe how Ireland further broke from the Commonwealth between 1938 and 1949.
The 1938 abdication of Edward VIII forced Dominions to legislate succession. De Valera used this to delete all references to the monarch and Governor General from the Irish constitution, passing the External Relations Act to maintain nominal links for foreign affairs. Ireland became a republic in all but name. In 1948, the new coalition government formally declared the Republic of Ireland. The Republic of Ireland Act came into effect on Easter Monday 1949, officially ending Ireland’s membership of the Commonwealth.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Introduce the role of culture and identity in Derry and who the Apprentice Boys were.
Northern Ireland in the 20th century was shaped by two opposing cultural identities: Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists. In Derry, despite a Catholic majority, Protestant culture was dominant. The Apprentice Boys of Derry, a Protestant fraternal group, commemorate the Siege of Derry and represent British cultural expression. Their parades and rituals play a central role in Unionist identity. This cultural divide created tensions between communities and shaped perceptions of power and resistance.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Explain the Unionist cultural position and attitude towards Irish nationalism in Derry.
Protestant unionists embraced British identity and expected Catholics to do the same. Nationalist culture was suppressed through bans on symbols like the tricolour and restrictions on nationalist parades. Unionists viewed cultural uniformity as essential to state stability. The Apprentice Boys represented this resistance to Irish identity. Their parades served not only as tradition but as a political statement, reinforcing Unionist control and the marginalisation of Catholics. Nationalists were denied equal space for cultural or political expression.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Describe the Siege of Derry and how the Apprentice Boys commemorate it.
The Siege of Derry occurred in 1688–1689 when 13 apprentice boys closed the city gates to Catholic forces, defying the planned surrender by Governor Lundy. The city endured a siege until it was broken on August 12th, 1689. The Apprentice Boys club was founded in 1714 to honour this event. They hold two parades annually: one on August 12th marking the end of the siege, and one on December 18th reenacting the closing of the gates and burning Lundy in effigy. These events symbolise Protestant resilience.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Outline the fears of Unionists in Derry and the role of Apprentice Boys in reinforcing Britishness.
Unionists in Derry, a Protestant minority in a Catholic-majority city, feared Catholic dominance. The Apprentice Boys represented a physical and symbolic defence of Protestantism. Parades were more than commemoration—they attracted thousands of unionists to Derry, reinforcing identity and dominance. Derry was seen as a Unionist stronghold. The parades were an assertion of Britishness in an environment Unionists saw as under threat. The group served as a shrine to past victory and a bulwark against perceived Catholic advances.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Explain how discrimination against Catholics and rising tension led to conflict in Derry.
Catholics in Derry faced systemic discrimination in housing, employment, and voting rights. Unionist parades, especially by the Apprentice Boys, reinforced their inferiority. During parades, coins were thrown into the Bogside not as weapons but as insults. Nationalist leaders like John Hume warned British officials to cancel parades. When a NICRA march was banned in the same month, tensions escalated. These issues laid the groundwork for direct conflict. Derry became a focal point of the civil rights movement and growing unrest.
•Northern Ireland: Apprentice Boys
Describe the Battle of the Bogside and its connection to the Apprentice Boys parade.
The 1969 Apprentice Boys parade escalated into violence when marchers clashed with Catholic residents in the Bogside. Catholics had prepared for confrontation. When the RUC failed to control the situation and instead entered the Bogside, violence broke out. For two days, rioting continued until the British Army intervened. The Apprentice Boys parade was the spark. This event marked the start of the Troubles, turning cultural tension into prolonged conflict and militarised resistance.
•Northern Ireland: Coleraine University Controversy
Introduce the background to the Coleraine University controversy.
In the 1960s, Northern Ireland had only one university: Queen's in Belfast. Magee College in Derry offered only part of a degree. The Wilson Report recommended creating a second university to boost economic development and meet the growing demand for higher education. Derry, as the second-largest city, was seen as the obvious choice, with support from both nationalist and unionist MPs. A university there could have strengthened community relations and created jobs.
•Northern Ireland: Coleraine University Controversy
Explain the Lockwood committee’s decision to reject Derry and choose Coleraine.
The Lockwood committee, created to assess locations for the new university, had no Catholic members and was seen as biased. Although Derry was the expected site, the committee cited a lack of student housing, sectarian tensions, and unoffered building space. Instead, Coleraine was selected. Reasons included local offers of free land, nearby tourist towns with accommodation, a Protestant-majority population, and suitability for agriculture and marine studies. Magee College was to be closed.
•Northern Ireland: Coleraine University Controversy
Describe the public reaction in Derry to the university decision.
The decision caused outrage in Derry, especially among Catholics, who saw it as another example of West of the Bann neglect. The University for Derry Action Committee was formed, led by John Hume. Nationalist and some unionist figures, including the unionist mayor of London and nationalist leader McAteer, united briefly to advocate for Derry. However, this alliance collapsed when unionist officials backed the Lockwood decision. Protest efforts included a 2,000-car motorcade to Stormont.
•Northern Ireland: Coleraine University Controversy
Explain the political fallout from the university controversy and the role of the ‘faceless men’.
After protests, O’Neill kept Magee College open but gave it no real investment. He met with a group of anonymous unionist leaders, referred to as the 'faceless men', who were believed to have pressured him to avoid establishing the university in Derry to maintain unionist control. Unionist MP Robert Nixon exposed this meeting and was later expelled. Lockwood denied government interference, but later evidence showed he met with government members before the report.
•Northern Ireland: Coleraine University Controversy
Describe the final vote and outcome of the Coleraine university decision.
O’Neill pressured unionist MPs to support the Lockwood Report, threatening expulsion. The vote passed narrowly in March 1965 by 27 to 19. Though Magee College remained open, it was absorbed into the new Coleraine-based university and underfunded. For Catholics in Derry, the incident represented broken promises and deepened mistrust. The initial cross-community support was undermined by the final decision, which reinforced perceptions of sectarian bias and marginalisation.
•Northern Ireland: Cultural Responses to The Troubles
Introduce the cultural response to the Troubles and its importance.
The Troubles created intense cultural division between Catholic nationalists and Protestant unionists. In response, art, literature, music, sport, and education became both tools of expression and battlegrounds of identity. Cultural forms were used to reflect daily life, reinforce group identity, or attempt reconciliation. These responses show how conflict shaped not only politics and violence, but also how people understood themselves and each other.
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•Northern Ireland: Cultural Responses to The Troubles
Explain how poets, especially Seamus Heaney, responded to the Troubles.
Poets did not take direct political stances but wrote about life under conflict. Seamus Heaney, the most well-known, wrote from a Catholic perspective but did not endorse either side. His work explored daily fears, such as in “A Constable Calls”, which showed his anxiety around the RUC. Despite accusations of bias, Heaney stated he did not think in terms of unionist or nationalist communities. Poetry gave space for reflection during violence.
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•Northern Ireland: Cultural Responses to The Troubles
Describe how film, theatre, and music reflected the conflict in Northern Ireland.
Catholic communities used film to highlight injustices such as internment and British military actions. “Death on the Rock” portrayed the killing of three IRA men. In theatre, the Field Day company aimed to bridge communities with plays like “Translations”, exploring themes of language and imperialism. Music, especially by Catholic artists like Phil Coulter and Paul Brady, voiced grief and protest. Songs like “The Town I Loved So Well” described the destruction of communities.
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•Northern Ireland: Cultural Responses to The Troubles
Explain how sport became a source of division and education a site of attempted reconciliation.
Sport was deeply divided. The GAA, linked with Irish nationalism, was targeted by loyalists, and unionists were banned from participation. Football clubs became sectarian, with some nationalist clubs dissolving. Rugby, however, remained cross-community. Education was also split. Most children attended denominational schools that taught biased views. In 1981, Lagan College became the first integrated school. Government programs like “Mutual Understanding” aimed to reduce division, but deep segregation remained.
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•Government and Society in Ireland: Eucharistic Congress
Introduce the context and purpose of the 1932 Eucharistic Congress.
The 31st International Eucharistic Congress was held in Dublin in 1932 to mark the 1500th anniversary of St. Patrick's arrival in Ireland. It was a major Catholic religious festival and a significant moment for the Irish Free State. Although planned by Cumann na nGaedheal, it took place after Fianna Fáil won the 1932 election. The event showcased the importance of Catholicism in Irish life and became a demonstration of the state's ability to organise on the world stage.
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•Government and Society in Ireland: Eucharistic Congress
Describe the events of the Congress and what they revealed about Irish society.
The Congress included visits by thousands of churchmen, including Papal Legate Cardinal Lauri, and a papal mass in Phoenix Park with a live broadcast from Rome. It showed Ireland's deep Catholic identity, close ties between Church and State, and the government’s organisational capabilities. PA systems broadcasted the mass and Dublin underwent a visual transformation. The state's confidence and Catholic dominance were reinforced on a global stage.
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•Government and Society in Ireland: Eucharistic Congress
Explain the broader cultural and political significance of the Congress.
The Congress reflected the Catholic Church’s role in shaping Irish values and public life. 93% of the population in the South was Catholic, while the North remained Protestant. The Church saw an opportunity to influence the newly formed state by embedding moral and social guidance into institutions. Catholicism became a shared national value, and the Congress helped lay the ideological groundwork for the 1937 Constitution.
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•Government and Society in Ireland: Eucharistic Congress
Describe the social and political outcomes of the Congress.
The Congress legitimised the Church's growing influence. It ran schools, hospitals, and charities, providing essential social services. Politically, it bridged the civil war divide, with the Church forgiving de Valera’s excommunication and cooperating with his party. Bishop McQuaid’s influence began to grow. However, the Congress also reinforced divisions with the Protestant North, as the spectacle of Catholic power deepened unionist fears and hardened support for partition.
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•Government and Society in Ireland: Eucharistic Congress
Summarise the long-term impact of the Eucharistic Congress.
The Congress was handled by both major political parties and marked a turning point in the role of Catholicism in Irish life. It further entrenched Church power in both political and cultural spheres. It united much of the population under shared religious values, while simultaneously widening the gap between North and South. Catholic dominance in state affairs increased and would continue for decades.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Impact of WWII on Ireland
Introduce how World War II impacted Ireland both North and South.
World War II affected Northern and Southern Ireland in sharply different ways. The South remained neutral and experienced economic hardship, censorship, and rationing but was spared from bombing. The North, as part of the UK, was involved in the war effort, experienced economic growth, and suffered devastating bombing raids. Despite these differences, both regions were shaped by the war in terms of security, economy, and public morale.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Impact of WWII on Ireland
Explain how the South responded to the war through censorship and rationing.
The Irish government enforced strict censorship to maintain neutrality, fearing a repeat of 1916 attitudes. Frank Aiken oversaw the effort, which aimed to show balanced coverage of both sides. Rationing became severe after British supply cuts, especially after France fell. Essential goods like tea, petrol, and coal were limited. Prices rose 70% while wages only rose 13%, and consumer goods became scarce. Lemass, as Minister for Supplies, helped manage shortages and founded the Irish Shipping Company.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Impact of WWII on Ireland
Describe how World War II affected Northern Ireland’s economy and preparedness.
Northern Ireland's economy boomed during the war due to shipbuilding at Harland & Wolff and aircraft production at Shorts. Linen production was also redirected to war materials like parachutes. Unemployment dropped and women entered the workforce. However, NI was poorly prepared for air raids, lacking adequate defences, shelters, or gas masks. This unpreparedness would have devastating consequences when the Luftwaffe bombed Belfast.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Impact of WWII on Ireland
Describe the Belfast Blitz and its effects on Northern society.
The Belfast Blitz began on April 7th, 1941, when the docklands were bombed. A more destructive raid followed on April 15th, killing 900 people and damaging key infrastructure. Many bombs struck working-class housing near the docks. Northern defences failed and fire response was limited. De Valera sent fire brigades from the South to assist. The events left Belfast traumatised, with over 100,000 fleeing the city at night, and highlighted the dangers of war for the Northern population.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Impact of WWII on Ireland
Summarise the contrasting outcomes of WWII for the North and South of Ireland.
The war deepened contrasts between the two regions. The South remained neutral and suffered economically, with severe shortages, rising prices, and falling living standards. In contrast, the North’s economy benefited, but the population lived in fear of bombing. The Belfast Blitz caused massive casualties and long-term psychological impact. While the South experienced hardship and censorship, the North paid a different price through destruction and fear.
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•Northern Ireland: Sunningdale
Introduce the background and objectives of the Sunningdale Agreement and Power-Sharing Executive.
The Sunningdale Agreement and the Power-Sharing Executive (PSE) were efforts to resolve violence during the Troubles in Northern Ireland. The agreement aimed to share power between unionists and nationalists while incorporating an 'Irish dimension' through a Council of Ireland. The context was rising violence, internment used almost solely on republicans, and the resignation of Chichester-Clark, replaced by Brian Faulkner. Direct rule from London was introduced in 1972.
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•Northern Ireland: Sunningdale
Explain the Darlington Conference, White Paper, and reactions to the new political proposals.
The Darlington Talks brought together moderate parties, excluding the SDLP, and proposed a power-sharing executive, new PR parliament, UK-controlled security, and a Council of Ireland. A border poll in 1973, boycotted by nationalists, resulted in 97.8% voting to remain in the UK. Whitelaw’s white paper outlined a 78-seat Assembly and confirmed that NI's status would depend on the majority's will. Unionists were divided, and Republicans rejected the plan for reinforcing partition.
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•Northern Ireland: Sunningdale
Describe the formation of the executive and the terms agreed at the Sunningdale Conference.
Elections resulted in a majority supporting power-sharing, but many elected unionists formed the UUUC to oppose it. The executive allocated ministries to Faulkner’s unionists, SDLP nationalists, and the Alliance. In Sunningdale, NI, Irish, and British cabinets agreed that unity would only occur by majority will in NI. The Council of Ireland would include ministers from both jurisdictions and a consultative assembly with no legislative power.
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•Northern Ireland: Sunningdale
Explain the public and political reactions to the Sunningdale Agreement.
The SDLP supported Sunningdale, seeing it as a path to closer Irish cooperation. The UUP ruling council rejected it, prompting Faulkner to resign as party leader. Extremists on both sides opposed it: the IRA bombed London, and loyalists formed the Ulster Army Council. In the 1974 general election, the UUUC won 11 of 12 NI seats by avoiding vote-splitting, weakening the PSE further. Heath also lost power, removing key British support.
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•Northern Ireland: Sunningdale
Describe the UWC strike and the end of the Sunningdale Executive.
The Ulster Workers’ Council, supported by Vanguard and the UDA, launched a strike on May 14th, 1974, to collapse the PSE. One million people refused to work, and critical infrastructure like power stations ceased to operate. The British Army refused to take control, and PM Wilson's “spongers” remark increased support for the strike. Faulkner resigned, the executive collapsed, and direct rule was reinstated. The strike had succeeded without formal negotiation.
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•Northern Ireland: Welfare State
Introduce the establishment of the Welfare State in Northern Ireland.
After WWII, Churchill recognised Northern Ireland’s contribution to the war and aimed to support its development. The Beveridge Report outlined comprehensive social protections to avoid post-war collapse, as seen after WWI. The Atlee Labour government came to power in 1945 promising to implement a welfare state, including reforms in housing, health, education, and social insurance. Basil Brooke agreed to raise taxes in NI to fund these measures.
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•Northern Ireland: Welfare State
Describe the healthcare reforms introduced under the Northern Ireland welfare state.
The UK government established the NHS in 1948, and Northern Ireland set up the NIHSCS. This gave all citizens access to free GP and dental care. A new tuberculosis authority reduced weekly TB deaths from 20 to 2 by 1959. A Hospitals Authority managed public hospitals, although the Catholic Mater Hospital opted out and lost state funding. These reforms dramatically improved public health outcomes and equalised access to medical services.
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•Northern Ireland: Welfare State
Explain the changes in education under the welfare state in Northern Ireland.
Before reforms, education was mostly denominational and underfunded for Catholics. The 1947 Education Act made school compulsory until age 15, introduced the 11-plus exam, and expanded access to grammar schools and third-level grants. It also increased Catholic school funding from 50% to 65%. By 1964, Northern Ireland had more second-level students per capita than the Republic. The education system helped build a well-trained workforce.
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•Northern Ireland: Welfare State
Summarise housing development and its impact on community relations.
The Housing Trust was created after a 1944 report found 45,000 unfit homes. It built 113,000 homes over 15 years with state support. Though intended to allocate housing based on need, local authorities often favoured Protestants. This worsened Catholic distrust. By the 1960s, only 63% of Catholic homes had indoor toilets and heating, compared to 72% of Protestant homes. Housing policies deepened social divisions despite material progress.
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•Northern Ireland: Welfare State
Outline the other social welfare measures introduced and their long-term impact.
In 1947, the National Insurance Fund provided payments to the sick, employed, and widowed. These payments were higher than in the Republic. Income per capita in NI rose from 55% to 68% of the UK average. The Catholic population especially benefited, raising expectations for equality. Northern Ireland's public services expanded dramatically, surpassing the Republic in healthcare, housing, and education, and shaping post-war social policy.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Nuremburg Rallies
Introduce the purpose and early development of the Nuremberg Rallies.
The Nuremberg Rallies were annual Nazi propaganda events aimed at demonstrating power and uniting the population. They began in 1923 in Munich, later moving to Nuremberg in 1927 due to local support. The events were highly choreographed and involved SS, SA, and top Nazi leaders. The rallies used radio, films, and mass attendance to spread Nazi ideology across Germany. Goebbels ordered the production of cheap radios to ensure nationwide access to propaganda.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Nuremburg Rallies
Describe the 1933 and 1934 Nuremberg Rallies and their propaganda techniques.
The 1933 “Rally of Victory” celebrated Hitler’s rise to power, attended by 500,000 people. It featured mass marches and flags, and Leni Riefenstahl’s film “Victory of Faith.” The 1934 “Rally of Strength and Unity” introduced Albert Speer’s Cathedral of Light and Riefenstahl’s “Triumph of the Will,” which glorified Hitler. Torchlight processions and mock battles reinforced themes of order, unity, and nationalism. These films extended the rallies’ reach to the entire German population.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Nuremburg Rallies
Explain how the rallies were used to promote Nazi military power and racial policy.
At the 1935 “Rally for Freedom,” the Luftwaffe made its first appearance, despite Versailles restrictions. Hitler announced the Nuremberg Race Laws, banning marriage and sexual relations between Jews and Germans and removing Jewish citizenship. These announcements were supported by targeted anti-Semitic propaganda. Later rallies included the 1936 “Rally of Honour,” focusing on remilitarisation, the 1937 “Rally of Labour,” and the 1938 “Rally of Greater Germany,” celebrating the Anschluss.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Nuremburg Rallies
Summarise the long-term legacy of the rallies and their role in Nazi ideology.
After 1938, the rallies ended due to World War II. Their lasting legacy was the image of unity, strength, and national pride they created. The rallies were highly theatrical tools of political indoctrination. Hitler used them to present himself as Germany’s saviour. After the war, Nazi leaders were tried in Nuremberg, symbolically reversing the propaganda narrative. Historians describe the rallies as grotesque spectacles of control and ideological submission.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Stalins Show Trials
Introduce the purpose and origins of Stalin’s show trials.
Stalin's show trials were staged court proceedings used to eliminate his political opponents and instill fear. Starting in 1934, the NKVD arrested thousands labeled 'enemies of the state.' Stalin feared rivals like Trotsky and used the assassination of Sergei Kirov to justify a purge. Trials were public, evidence was minimal, and confessions were extracted by torture. They served as tools to consolidate Stalin's authority.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Stalins Show Trials
Describe the Trial of the Sixteen and its purpose.
In 1936, Stalin targeted former rivals Zinoviev and Kamenev. They and 14 others were accused of plotting to kill Stalin and leading a Trotskyist conspiracy. They were tortured into confessing. The trial was attended by foreign media and lacked evidence. Prosecutor Vyshinsky demanded execution. All defendants pleaded guilty and were executed. The trial was designed to remove opposition and justify Stalin’s power.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Stalins Show Trials
Explain the Trial of the Seventeen and the use of scapegoats.
In 1937, 17 defendants, including Radek and Pyatakov, were accused of collaborating with Trotsky and Germany. Charges included sabotage, treason, and plans to aid Germany in exchange for political support. Confessions were obtained through torture. Thirteen were executed, four sent to labour camps. This trial aimed to find scapegoats for economic failures and suppress dissent within the party.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Stalins Show Trials
Summarise the military purges and the destruction of Red Army leadership.
In 1937, Stalin purged the Red Army, fearing its loyalty due to past connections with Trotsky. Trials accused commanders of treason and espionage. Three of five field marshals, eight admirals, and 30,000 officers were executed. The military purge eliminated Stalin’s last institutional threat, consolidating total control over the state.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Stalins Show Trials
Describe the Trial of the Twenty-One and the post-trial consequences.
The 1938 trial involved Bukharin, Yagoda, and Rykov. Accused of treason, spying, and plotting Lenin’s assassination, all but three defendants were executed. Bukharin resisted confessing but eventually complied. After the trials, the NKVD was ordered to meet execution quotas, and mass arrests followed. Up to 1.2 million were executed. The trials eliminated opposition and ensured full loyalty to Stalin.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Jarrow March
Introduce the background and reasons for the Jarrow March.
Jarrow, a shipbuilding town near Newcastle, suffered massive economic decline in the 1930s. The closure of Palmers shipyard in 1934 caused unemployment to rise above 70%. Described as 'a derelict town,' Jarrow had no local industry left. Local MP Ellen Wilkinson supported a march to London to present a petition for a new steelworks. Inspired by earlier hunger marches, the event aimed to highlight poverty and demand action.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Jarrow March
Describe the organisation and journey of the Jarrow March.
The Jarrow Council selected 200 unemployed men and raised £1,500 for food, boots, and clothing. 11,000 people signed a petition asking for government support. The march was branded a 'crusade' to avoid communist association. Wilkinson joined parts of the route, though the Labour Party did not support it. Marchers had their unemployment benefits cut but were welcomed in many towns along the route. They arrived in Hyde Park on November 1st, 1936.
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•Dictatorship and Democracy: Jarrow March
Explain the outcome of the Jarrow March and its significance.
On November 4th, the petition was presented in parliament. The government refused to meet the marchers or offer assistance. Ellen Wilkinson’s pleas were ignored. Despite the lack of immediate results, the march raised awareness about unemployment in industrial Britain. Only 100 of 8,000 men in Jarrow were employed at the time. Though the government rejected the appeal, the march contributed to public debate and Jarrow’s economy later recovered due to WWII.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Introduce Michael Collins and his historical importance.
Michael Collins played a critical role in Ireland’s struggle for independence. He was key in the War of Independence, the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, and the leadership of the pro-Treaty side during the Civil War. Though admired by many, he was also blamed for the Treaty and labelled a traitor by opponents. His death in 1922 marked the end of a significant chapter in Irish revolutionary history.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Summarise Collins’ early life and rise to prominence.
Collins was born in Cork in 1890 and later worked as an accountant in the Irish Post Office in London. He joined the IRB and GAA, returning to Dublin for the 1916 Rising. After being imprisoned, he was released in 1917 and became active in the independence movement. By 1919, he was appointed Minister for Finance in the first Dáil.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Describe Collins’ work in intelligence and preparations for the Treaty.
As Finance Minister, Collins raised funds and protected the Dáil’s assets. He also created 'The Squad,' a group of assassins targeting British spies and informers. He recognised that the IRA could not win a prolonged war and reluctantly accepted a role in Treaty negotiations, acting against his own judgement to follow orders.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Explain Collins’ role in negotiating and signing the Treaty.
During negotiations, Collins tried to achieve the best possible outcome for Ireland without restarting war. Under pressure, he signed the Treaty, which granted dominion status and caused a split in the Dáil. Though controversial, he believed it gave Ireland freedom to build upon.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Outline Collins’ efforts to prevent civil war and the events leading to his death.
Collins attempted to avoid civil war, particularly during the Four Courts occupation. However, when General O’Connell was kidnapped, conflict became unavoidable. He led military operations and, after Griffith’s death, became President. He was assassinated at Béal na Bláth in Cork in 1922, believing he would not be targeted in his home county.
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•Pursuit of Sovereignty: Michael Collins
Summarise the legacy of Michael Collins.
Collins played a vital role in Ireland’s independence, Treaty negotiations, and civil war leadership. Though divisive, he is remembered as a key patriot who shaped modern Ireland. Churchill described him as 'an Irish patriot, true and fearless.' His death left a lasting impact on Irish politics and memory.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Introduce the Cold War and explain why it emerged after World War II.
The Cold War was a period of intense rivalry, propaganda, and tension between the capitalist West, led by the USA, and the communist East, led by the USSR. Following the Allied victory in World War II, the two superpowers emerged with opposing ideologies and military capabilities. The USA had the strongest economy and nuclear arsenal, while the USSR held the largest army. Postwar disagreements over Germany, European recovery, and mutual mistrust pushed both sides toward confrontation, bringing the world to the edge of a third world war.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Describe the ideological divide between communism and capitalism and how it began.
Tensions between East and West dated back to the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The USSR followed Marxist communism, abolishing private property and introducing state ownership. The West retained capitalist systems, valuing individual profit and property rights. These differences provoked fear and hostility. Winston Churchill coined the term 'Iron Curtain' to describe the ideological divide across Europe. Both sides saw each other's systems as a threat to their values, which deepened mistrust and increased polarisation.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Explain Stalin’s mistrust of the West and how it shaped Cold War policies.
Stalin believed war between capitalism and communism was inevitable. His suspicion of the West increased after the slow Allied opening of a second front in WWII and the USA’s development of nuclear weapons. He viewed Western capitalism as inherently unstable and dangerous. These fears led Stalin to take control of Eastern Europe through puppet governments in Poland, East Germany, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, creating a protective buffer zone and worsening East–West relations.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Describe the policy of sovietisation and the Western response to it.
Stalin’s sovietisation policy aimed to defend the USSR by establishing loyal communist regimes in neighbouring states. Using pro-Moscow exiles in key ministries, he extended control across Eastern Europe. The West viewed this as aggression and expansionism. Britain helped Greece and Turkey resist communism, but after WWII lacked resources. The USA stepped in with the Truman Doctrine and a policy of containment, pledging to prevent the spread of communism throughout Europe.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Explain Marshall Aid and the Soviet response to it.
After WWII, the USA launched the Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe and stabilise economies, preventing the spread of communism. While the plan boosted European recovery and US consumer exports, Stalin saw it as a capitalist threat. He responded by establishing Comecon in 1955 to foster economic development within Eastern bloc countries. This economic divide reinforced Churchill’s Iron Curtain, solidifying the East–West split across Europe.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Describe the division of Germany and the Berlin Crisis as causes of Cold War escalation.
At the Potsdam Conference in 1946, Germany was divided between the four Allied powers. Berlin, though deep in Soviet-controlled territory, was also split. Disagreements over postwar recovery in Germany led to rising tensions, resulting in the Berlin Blockade and Airlift. The crisis symbolised the conflict between capitalist and communist models. It set the tone for future Cold War confrontations and highlighted Germany, especially Berlin, as a central battleground for ideological conflict.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Outline the role of military alliances in intensifying the Cold War.
To protect against future threats, the West formed NATO in 1949, a military alliance where an attack on one was considered an attack on all. In response, Stalin created the Warsaw Pact in 1955 with Eastern European states. These alliances formalised the division of Europe into two opposing armed blocs. They increased the risk of conflict and ensured that any future war would likely involve global powers, raising Cold War tensions significantly.
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•Division and Realignment in Europe: Cold War
Summarise the long-term causes and significance of the Cold War divide.
The Cold War was driven by ideological opposition, military rivalry, and geopolitical mistrust. Soviet fears of capitalist encirclement and Western fears of communism intensified through sovietisation, economic recovery plans, and the formation of opposing alliances. By the late 1940s, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain, and global diplomacy was shaped by this Cold War dynamic for the next four decades.
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